THE EVER INCREASING SPEED of Scientific and technological advance over recent years has naturally made itself felt in the design, construction and equipment of lifeboats throughout the world. So rapid have these changes been in the second half of the twentieth century that this may be a suitable time to look back across the years to what may be assumed as the date of the birth of the lifeboat as we know it. It must be admitted that the date adopted here is perhaps entirely arbitrary and not necessarily agreed universally. But for the purpose of this article it will be sufficiently accurate.

It is accepted that the first lifeboat specifically designed and built in Britain was the 'Original' and the date 1789. This boat served at the mouth of the Tyne for nearly 40 years but was in fact preceded by a Northumberland coble, a local fishing craft, which was modified for the purpose and stationed at Bamburgh. Other claimants for the honour of being first to organise a sea rescue service included the Chinese, who also are said to have invented gunpowder, which may be held to have offset the value of their humanitarian efforts! Although the instinct to render assistance to fellow human beings in distress is a natural one, in the early days of universal seafaring activity there were a number of considerations which tended to over-ride humanitarian feelings.

A wreck often brought sudden wealth and desirable property to poor coastal dwellers and in the plundering of stranded ships lives were more likely to be lost than saved.

So the early days of sea rescue no doubt saw frequent tussles between conscience and cupidity. With ships on the open sea attacked and plundered for all sorts of dubious reasons, the pitifully impoverished people on the coast were probably little worse than many a sea captain acclaimed for his exploits.

In dealing with history it is necessary to judge human behaviour in the light of what was acceptable at the time—not by present day standards.

The history of the lifeboat covers nearly two centuries, and this time may be divided conveniently into four major Cdr E. W. Middleton, VRD RNVR, joined the RNLI in 1946 as inspector of lifeboats (Western Division), becoming district inspector (general) in 1951. He was appointed assistant chief inspector of lifeboats in 1954 and superintendent of depot in 1958. Among other ways in which he has helped the lifeboat service since his retirement in 1964 was the preparation of a review of coastal operational activities from 1955 to 1965.

periods of change. A certain amount of overlapping occurs as must be expected, since a fleet of lifeboats cannot be changed overnight.

For hundreds, indeed thousands of years, the only methods of propulsion for sea-going craft were oars and sail and the only major change throughout that time was the discovery that it was possible to sail to windward. The ability to sail towards the direction from which the wind was blowing undoubtedly brought about far reaching changes in navigation, trade and the balance of power.

Pulling and sailing The first of our four periods covers the days of the pulling and sailing lifeboat and it is by far the longest that we have to consider—really about a hundred years, although the mechanical age had already begun, almost at the outset. But the overlapping already mentioned worked in both directions and the last pulling and sailing lifeboat, then stationed at New Quay, Cardiganshire, was not replaced until 1948 and a pulling lifeboat remained in service at Whitby until well into the '50s.

During this period the main interest centred on the question of the superiority or otherwise of the self-righter. At one time the greater proportion of boats were self-righting but over the years they became less popular. Even so, in 1910 self-righters still outnumbered other types by nearly two to one; by 1960 there were only three or four self-righting lifeboats left on the coast.

But from 1789 until the early days of this century the pulling and sailing boats dominated the shore-based sea rescue service. The fact that in 1890 a rival appeared on the scene had very little impact and there is very little doubt that whatever effect it had on the lifeboats' crews it was not initially one of general enthusiasm.

Steam The first seriously accepted form of mechanical propulsion was the steam engine, and although a design for a steam driven lifeboat was submitted in 1850 it was not until 1890 that the first steam lifeboat of the RNLI, the Duke of Northumberland was placed on service at Harwich. She did duty for 33 years at various stations so may be considered to have been successful.

However, a boiler explosion killed her two firemen, fortunately not when she was on a rescue mission or more lives might have been lost. In all five steam lifeboats were built and one of them, the James Stevens No. 4, capsized on service in April, 1900, with the loss of eight lives. One really must salute the engine-room crew of these steam lifeboats and particularly the firemen in the stokehold in heavy weather. This tiny compartment must have been like a miniature Dante's Inferno and very conducive to seasickness.

The internal combustion engine The advent of the steam lifeboat was not the end but it was the beginning of the end of the era of oars and sail.

Indeed, the internal combustion or petrol engine was already in its early stages and clearly had advantages as a means of propulsion for lifeboats. Thus it was that in 1904 a sailing lifeboat hull was modified to take a petrol engine with a view to extended trials to evaluate its characteristics and reliability.

The initial decision to employ mechanical power had been made with the introduction of the steam lifeboats but the adoption of the petrol engine posed even greater problems. The traditions of generations of handling boats under oars and sail were firmly entrenched in the minds of the men who manned the lifeboats and the idea of relying on a quite incomprehensible, odd-shaped lump of metal was obviously not going to appeal to them. No doubt some members of the RNLI Committee of Management were also dubious about the proposed changes and the then surveyor of lifeboats, a Mr Rubie, pointed out in committee that 12 men pulling oars only produced from 2 to 3 horsepower whereas a good suit of sails would produce up to 50 horsepower.

Petrol So this was the start of the second period mentioned, that of the early petrol-engined lifeboats, and it was clearly stated at this time that all boats would continue to carry their normal complement of oars and sail, the engines being considered auxiliary.

This period lasted roughly from the beginning of the present century until the end of World War II. During the six years of the war the building of lifeboats was virtually at a standstill and although new designs were being worked on, actual development could not proceed.

The enormous undertaking of the change from sails to the internal combustion engine took place between the wars. The advance of technology normally engendered by the necessities of war no doubt resulted in improvements in the design of petrol engines, which was reflected in the lifeboat buildingprogramme. However, by the outbreak of war in 1939 the majority of lifeboats were, by today's standards, quite unsophisticated. Diesel engines had recently been introduced but were really still in the trial stage. Radio telephony had been fitted to some of the larger boats but in fact navigational equipment might be described as primitive—a compass and a hand leadline, in fact. In considering this one must also realise that a large proportion of the crews were inshore fishermen: men so familiar with their stretch of coastline and its waters that they had developed an uncanny instinct of knowing just where they were, even in the pitch dark, fog, falling snow or heavy rainstorms! World War II During World War II the building of new boats came to a standstill but there was some slight accretion from lifeboats brought across the channelbefore the Germans arrived. Thus, at the end of the war in 1945 the RNL1 was faced with the necessity of initiating a huge building programme, a task not made easier by the shortage of materials, manpower (until demobilisation had taken place), and, no doubt, money. On the coast it was not only new boats that were needed but also new coxswains, crews, inspectors and in some places station branch committees.

Many of the coxswains and crew members were over 70 years of age.

having gallantly manned the boats during the difficult and dangerous days of the war. Now, the younger men who had been away on active service would be returning hone.

Diesel The third of our four periods began then in 1945 with one of the most extensive building programmes in the history of the RNLI. The keynote was the change to diesel engines, which minimised the fire risk and extended the radius of action for the same fuel capacity, and the decision that all new boats should have twin screws. Twin screws spelled the end of sails, which for a considerable time had been considered auxiliary to the petrol engine.Even so, there was still a pulling and sailing lifeboat in service at New Quay, Cardiganshire (or, Dyfed, as it is now) and a pulling boat which operated between the piers at Whitby. The New Quay boat was replaced by a twin screw Liverpool type in 1948 and the Whitby boat was withdrawn in the '50s.

In addition to these major changes, sophisticated instruments, devised or improved as a result of the necessities of war, began to make their appearance.

Radio telephony was fitted as standard in all boats allowing constant communication with the Coastguard and the updating of vital information.

Radio direction finding took the place of inspired guesstimation and echo sounders at least warned a coxswain that he was about to hit the bottom when working alongside a wreck close inshore. Radar posed more serious problems of top weight and stowage room in the early days but these in their turn were overcome. Once more, wartime invention and technical progress had produced valuable improvements in lifesaving craft and equipment which otherwise might not have taken place for many years.

One of the changes not foreseen in the initial planning stages was the needfor better protection from the weather for crews. Among the older RNLI officials, used to the completely open pulling and sailing boats and early motorlifeboats, there was perhaps a feeling that the iron men who manned the wooden boats had been replaced by softer material. But in fact the new boats with their increased radius of action could mean that crews were thoroughly wet and cold by the time they arrived at a casualty, a fact not calculated to improve their efficiency.

So further modifications were made, bigger and better windscreens fitted and wheelhouses designed for the larger boats. In general, these immediate post-war lifeboats were certainly more able and efficient crafts than their predecessors and might be considered some of the finest small rescue crafts ever designed and b u i l t . But by modern standards they were slow.

The modern lifeboat Almost at once the fourth period of development was upon us. The whole pattern of sea rescue was changing rapidly. Commercial sea routes and the types of ship which sailed them were altering almost over night. Whereas pre-war the mighty ocean-going ships were all majestic passenger liners, now it was the cargo vessel and tanker that were growing to unheard of sizes. And a great boom in sea sports meant more and more people were seeking health and recreation on, in or under the sea.

With more people at risk, there were more casualties. Speed became the watchword for sea rescue, with more sophisticated equipment occurring in the same breath. The resumption of the four yearly International Lifeboat Conferences widened the outlook of all sea rescue organisations. All these considerations, coupled with rapidly rising costs, posed tremendous problems for the Committee of Management of the RNLI and senior staff. It would continued on page 60.